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Sentimos
tener que presentar algunos textos en francés e inglés, sus
lenguas originales.
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Ci
scusiamo per la pubblicazione di alcuni testi in francese e inglese, lingue
originali.
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LOS MORADORES DEL DESIERTO EN LUCHA
"Como la carroña
que se disputan las águilas
grises
así me despojan
de mis pastos".
(Hawad, poeta targui moderno).
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Los Tuareg viven en las regiones del Sáhara y del Sahel, en África.
Están divididos entre cinco países: Argelia, Burkina
Fasso, Libia, Mali y Níger. "Tuareg" es un nombre dado por los extranjeros.
Estos pastores, ganaderos, agro-pastores o comerciantes nómadas
se llaman a sí mismos imajaghen o Kel Tamajaq («los que hablan
Tuareg»). La independencia del África francesa
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occidental desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial supuso que las tierras Tuareg
quedaran divididas por las fronteras arbitrarias de los nuevos estados
nacionales. Las cifras que se calculan de población Tuareg varían
de uno a tres millones, de los que un millón o millón
y medio viven en Níger y de medio a un millón en Mali.
Habitantes de uno de los entornos más inhóspitos de la
tierra, los Tuareg han desarrollado una sociedad muy compleja y sofisticada.
Históricamente eran los dueños de la zona y controlaban las
caravanas camelleras del desierto. Los Tuareg tienen un sistema de relaciones
de clan y herencia generalmente matrilineal. Esto significa que en muchos
casos un hombre Tuareg pertenecerá al clan de su |
madre y que la propiedad familiar, incluidas las recuas de camellos, se
hereda por la vía materna.
En tiempos de la colonización francesa, en el siglo XIX, los
Tuareg se dividían en varias grandes confederaciones de clanes.
Cada confederación estaba presidida por un amenokal (jefe) sujeto
a elección. La jerarquía social (con variaciones según
comunidades) se componían de nobles (imajaghen, imuhagh, imushagh),
tributarios (imghad), sacerdotes (ineslimen), artesanos (inaden),
libertos (ighawelen) y esclavos (iklan). La esclavitud no solo se daba
entre los Tuareg sino que era común en toda la región sahariana
y otras partes de África. Los Shonghay de Tombuctú y los
Gao de Mali, recientemente enfrentados a los Tuareg, también tenían
esclavos.
Los Tuareg tienen un rígido código del honor que rige
su trato entre ellos y con los extranjeros. Las mujeres son muy respetadas.
En casi todos los niveles de la jerarquía Tuareg, hombres y mujeres
comparten la misma excelente educación y las mujeres participan
habitualmente en las tomas de decisiones del clan.
Aunque se identifican como musulmanes, los Tuareg mantienen en su práctica
religiosa muchas costumbres preislámicas. Tienen un rico patrimonio
de poesía y música que se transmite oralmente a las nuevas
generaciones a través de las madres, los ancianos o los cantores,
que se acompañan de flautas o laúdes. Su antiguo sistema
de escritura (tifinagh) se utilizaba en el pasado sólo para mensajes
personales pero ahora se está desarrollando para nuevos usos. Esto
demuestra que, pese a su pérdida de independencia, su cultura sigue
viva.
El colonialismo francés minó la estructura de la sociedad
Tuareg, a la que impuso formas de gobierno nuevas y ajenas. En consecuencia,
los Tuareg se hicieron famosos en Francia por su feroz resistencia que
se prolongó hasta los 20 años y les condujo a la pérdida
de mucha de su tierra de pastos. Desde la descolonización, la división
del pueblo Tuareg entre cinco países distintos ha supuesto que quedaran
sojuzgados bajo las sociedades mayoritarias sedentarias.
El comercio de caravanas ha sido destruido por la competencia de carreteras
y camiones y los aranceles aduaneros impuestos por los gobiernos nacionales.
Muchos Tuareg se han visto obligados a abandonar sus tierras y buscar
trabajos temporales en las ciudades de África del Norte y Occidental,
donde se enfrentan a la pobreza y la discriminación. Los Tuareg
de las ciudades viven normalmente en suburbios inmundos, obligados a aceptar
trabajos sin futuro. En Mali y Níger, donde se concentra la población
Tuareg, la frustración ha hecho que aumente la militancia política,
que a veces conduce al conflicto armado.
La situación de los Tuareg se ve también agravada por
las compañías mineras internacionales que obtienen uranio
y otros minerales, incluido oro, petróleo y gas, en las montañas
que son el corazón del territorio Tuareg en Níger. Los Tuareg
no obtienen ningún beneficio de estas explotaciones, salvo trabajo
peligroso y mal pagado. En el Pacto Naciones de Mali de 1992, los representantes
Tuareg plantearon unas medidas de autodeterminación |
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cercanas a un modo de independencia, pero el gobierno de Mali las rechazó.
Desde 1994. la región Tuareg de Mali ha sido el escenario de
una guerra oculta. Hacia octubre de ese año se habían denunciado
más de 130 muertes extrajudiciales, la mayoría referidas
a Tuaregs y a otro grupo minoritario, los Azawad. Los Tuaregs han respondido
enérgicamente al ataque y los protagonistas actuales del conflicto
son grupos rivales de población civil más que ejércitos
rebeldes y gubernamentales. Los Shongay, por ejemplo, han creado una "unidad
de autodefensa" llamada Gandha Koy para tomar "represalias" contra los
Tuareg. La tensión se ve exacerbada por los extremistas de ambos
lados que usan una retórica racista. Las poblaciones sedentarias
del sur de Mali y Níger se refieren a veces a los Tuareg como "nómadas
blancos" que se aferran a un modo de vida privilegiado, mientras que algunos
Tuaregs han dicho que no quieren ser gobernados por africanos negros.
Una de las consecuencias más graves de estas hostilidades es
la crisis de refugiados, que afecta especialmente a Argelia, Burkina Fasso
y Mauritania. Hay ya al menos 80.000 Tuareg refugiados en Mauritania según
el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados (ACNUR)
y el número sigue aumentando. En 1994 había otros 50.000
refugiados en Argelia y 30.000 en Burkina Fasso. Estos refugiados están
viviendo en una terribles condiciones y las tensiones con los países
receptores se agudizan progresivamente. En Burkina Fasso ya se han denunciado
choques entre los grupos de refugiados y la población local.
A principios de 1995 el acuerdo de paz en Níger sigue en pie,
aunque los "nómadas" no se libran de la discriminación. En
Mali hay señales de iniciativas populares de pacificación
iniciadas por civiles Shongay y Tuareg que han actuado sin el apoyo de
sus dirigentes, pero algunos Tuaregs se muestran escépticos acerca
de la validez o la perdurabilidad de estos acuerdos. Las posibilidades
de lograr compromisos de todas las partes disminuyen conforme el conflicto
se hace más grave, aumenta la crisis de los refugiados y los países
vecinos se ven implicados.
MITOS Y LEYENDAS
Pocos lugares existen tan inhóspitos y desolados en la "realidad
tangible" como el Sahara. Su extensión es enorme, unos nueve millones
de kilómetros cuadrados, y en bastantes zonas pueden pasar decenios
sin que caiga una sola gota de agua ("Yo te traeré gotas de lluvia
de países donde nunca llueve" Jacques Brel). El tórrido
Simún sopla impetuoso y arrasador capaz de hacer la vida imposible
a hombres y bestias, y de evaporar el agua de odres y otros recipientes;
mires donde mires solamente verás arena...piedras y arena, sin agua....
sin hierbas... Sólo escasos y muy separados algunos Oasis. En verano
un sol implacable eleva la temperatura durante el día por encima
de los cincuenta grados. Sin embargo por la noche se producen heladas y
los termómetros descienden por debajo de "cero". En el centro de
tan riguroso paraje reside un pueblo Nómada bereber: los tuareg
u "hombres azules". No es extraño que en sus creencias islámicas
mezclen elementos animistas y algunas antiguas supersticiones; de
otro modo.... no hallarían explicación a las exigencias de
su entorno. Veamos algunas de sus creencias:
DJINNS (YINNS O JINAS)
Al parecer la palabra árabe "djinn" provenía de la misma
raíz que la palabra "genio", que se encuentra en todas las lenguas
arias, y que corresponde a un tipo de espíritus burlescos a los
que les encanta divertirse a cuenta de los humanos.
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Los teólogos mahometanos consideraban la existencia de dos clases
de seres espirituales por encima del hombre: los ángeles y los jinas
(djinn). Los jinas y espíritus inferiores se entrometen constantemente
en la vida humana hasta llegar... a cotas insospechadas para un occidental.
Alá, según la tradición islámica, hizo
a los ángeles con luz, a los Djinns con fuego y al hombre con polvo.
Hay quien afirma que la materia de los segundos es un oscuro fuego sin
humo. Fueron creados dos mil años antes que Adan, pero su estirpe
no alcanzará el Juicio Final.
Al-Qazwini afirmaba que eran como "vastos animales etéreos de
cuerpo transparente capaces de asumir varias formas", unas veces la figura
de una |
persona... otras la de un terrible animal..... Generalmente su aspecto
es tan desagradable como extraño, ya que suelen tener forma humana,
boca de perro, pies de camello, y pelo de cordero. Según algunas
tradiciones habitarían una "Tercera Tierra" (especie de mundo subterráneo),
ya que Iblis -también llamado Seitán- , el Demonio de la
religión islámica, es su padre y señor.
Algunos son creyentes; otros, en cambio, heréticos o ateos.
Pueden atravesar un muro, o volar por los aires o hacerse bruscamente
invisibles. A menudo llegan al cielo inferior, donde sorprenden la conversación
de los ángeles sobre los acontecimientos futuros; esto les permite
ayudar a los magos, brujos y adivinos. Hay quien les atribuye la construcción
de las Pirámides o, por orden de Salomón, del Templo de Jerusalén.
Los Djinns más maléficos cometían todo tipo de "maldades",
entre ellos hacer la vida imposible a las buenas gentes, arrojándoles
piedras, raptando con fines lujuriosos a las mujeres más hermosas
o causando terribles tormentas de arena en el desierto. Para conjurarlos
es necesario invocar con devoción el nombre de Alá, el Clemente,
el Compasivo.
Su morada más común son las casas deshabitadas, los pozos
vacíos, etc....
Los tuaregs piensan que las estrellas fugaces son dardos arrojados
por Alá contra los Djinns maléficos.
LOS YENNUN
Los tuaregs creen que en ciertas zonas arenosas o montañosas
del Sahara, habitan los Yennun, cuyo gran señor es Abu Mared. Setrata
de espíritus perversos, que aguardan entre las grietas de las rocas
o entre las sombras de las dunas para causar el mal a todas las gentes
que llegan a sus solitarias posesiones.
Si están de relativo buen sentido del humor, tal vez se conformen
con maltratar un poco las caravanas , permitiéndolas seguir su viaje
sin más contratiempos que un buen susto. Pero si Abu Mared, su señor
y jefe, está malhumorado - lo que ocurre con relativa frecuencia-
pueden alterar el sentido de la orientación de los viajeros, nublando
su raciocinio y la memoria de las rutas, llevándoles hasta lugares
yermos o peligrosos, sin posibilidad de encontrar agua y víveres.
Estos espíritus maléficos suelen moverse por donde menos
se espera, aunque los "hombres azules" creen que pueden localizarse en
los parajes más desolados.
El origen de los Yennun parece remontarse a la noche de los tiempos.
Normalmente los tuareg procuran no hablar de ellos; pero basta su sola
mención durante la ceremonia del té, por ejemplo, para crear
desazón y hacer que nadie se encuentre a gusto allí.
Ante tales amenazas no les queda a estos Nómadas más
recurso que protegerse, llevando colgadas del cuello una o varias bolsitas
de piel de cabra con diversos amuletos -a los que denominan gris-gris-
y algunas frases del Corán, junto con jaculatorias en "tamahaq",
su lengua vernácula.
LOS KEL ESSUF
Los tuaregs (en singular "targui") consideran a los Kel Essuf hijos
de los Yennun y les atribuyen la
provocación de catástrofes naturales: tormentas de arena
o inoportunos movimientos de dunas , capaces de sepultar sus poblados o
caravanas, desecación de bolsas de agua, y otros inexplicables fenómenos
meteorológicos. Los tuareg aceptan todo esto estoicamente , pero
procuran hablar en público lo menos posible de todos estos malos
espíritus.
LOS RUL
Son genios afines a los Kel Essuf y a los Yennun, si bien prefieren
habitar en las dunas.
TOUAREGS: Fiche d'identité
par Survie Touarègue, TEMOUST
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Le peuple Touareg occupe le Sahara central et les bordures du Sahel.
Ce territoire est traversé par des frontières politiques
issues de la colonisation.
Les Touaregs se retrouvent ainsi dans cinq pays différents:
1.Niger: 1 500 000
2.Mali: 1 000 000
3.Lybie, Algérie et Burkina-Faso: 500 000
L'organisation politique traditionnelle est fondée sur
un système de confédérations (Ahaggar, Ajjer, Tadamakat,
Aïr, Ouadalan et Adagh). Ces entités ont été
dépoillées de leur pouvoir politique, d'abord par l'administration
coloniale, puis par les nouveaux États. |
La langue Touarègue, appelée Tamahaq, Tamajaq ou Tamachaq,
selon les régions est une des composantes de la langue berbère.
Les Touaregs possèdent un alphabet appelé Tifinagh, mais
la tradition est restée essentiellement orale.
L'islamisation relativement récente du monde Touareg, s'accomode
de certaines coutumes et traditions plus anciennes et qui font la spécificité
des Touaregs par rapport aux peuples qui les entourent.
L'activité économique principale des Touaregs reste l'élevage
extensif, malgré le développement, ces dernières années,
du tourisme et du commerce. Le passage du nomadisme pastoral à un
mode de vie de plsu en plus sédentaires, devra s'accompagner d'une
reconversion dans des activités moins sujettes aux aléas
climatiques.
Background
| Before the colonization, the Tuareg people based its political organization
on a system of confederations that allowed a rational management of its
immense territory. On the economic plan, the control of the transsaharian
caravan trade, and trades with the other peoples, translated into a complement
in the respect of some balances. |
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As everywhere, these balances were based essentially on power struggles
of the moment, not only between Tuareg and the other ethnic groups of the
region, but also between the different Tuareg confederations.
This situation has lasted until an arrival of the colonization.
The colonial penetration came up, in Tuareg regions, against the resistance
of the peoples, like
Kaoussen in Aïr and Fihroun in Azawagh. It has been necessary
practically thirty years to the colonial administration to spread its authority
on its totality of the Tuareg's territory.
The first worry about this new administration has been "break" the
Tuareg confederations and to
transform them into a multitude of small tribes that is more docile.
An establishment of a tax on
persons and the cattle has been the symbol of domination that affected
most vigorously all of Tuareg
populations.
At the end of this period, France decided to make its colonial territories,
independent countries in which integrated Tuareg territory. Tuareg, despite
several protests against this accomplished fact, has become Malian, Algerian,
Niger. The majority of the Tuareg people is found thus to Mali and to Niger
with a mosaic of other peoples.
In 1963, a first Tuareg's revolts to Mali, has been taken place. This
repression had made thousands of victims among the civil Tuareg population.
Draught between 1973 and 1974, and between 1984 and 1985 having decimated
the almost totality of their livestock, have brought many Tuareg in shantytowns
around urban centers, or have pressed them in exile essentially to Algeria,
Libya, and Nigeria.
The exasperation coming from this situation, especially the desperation
being considered as citizens
entirety aside, brought some Tuareg groups to enter in armed resistance
against central authorities of
Mali and Niger. This resistance is born after the massacre of civilians
Tuareg at Tchin-Tabaraden, to
Niger, in May and June 1990. (*)
The incident of Tchin-Tabaraden
On May 7 1990, some young Tuareg decided to go to the prison of Tchin-Tabaraden
to release their friend arrested some days before. In the dispute with
guardians of the prison, one of these last found the death. After this
incident, the young Tuareg group, fearing the reaction of authorities,
disappeared in the nature.
The news gets some hours later at Tahoua and at Niamey, that hurried
immediately hundred of soldiers with the order to comb all that region.
From their arrival to Tchin-Tabaraden, the soldiers bomb the city even
entering without knowing what has happened. Dozens of persons were thus
killed by the army that proceeded then to arrests a number of Tuareg in
all the region.
Several public executions have been operated by the army at Tillia,
Tchin-Tabaraden and Tahoua.
Different sources estimate more than 1500 victims in those two months.
(*)
Niger - 1990-1996
A few months after these events, the president of Niger of that period,
announced to hold a national
conference. Despite all hopes that the Tuareg's community had placed
in it, the national conference
has not wanted to take decisions of justice and equity that is essential.
Then, the young Tuareg, having lost all hope to be made hear by the
dialogue, have put themselves in mountains of Aïr to organize an armed
resistance. Thus the Front of Liberation of Aïr and Azawagh
(FLAA) was born.(*)
On March 1992, the government established a security zone in the North
(and access of public
information was cut off). (+)
On August 1992, military and paramilitary forces captured around 200
Tuareg in raids. (+) All these
persons have been captured on the unique criterion that they belong
to a Tuareg community. (*)
Early in 1993, similarly, Tuareg rebels took an undetermined number
of captives. (+)
On march 1993, the new government reached a 3 months' truce FLAA. This
truce led to an exchange of all prisoners and was extended in June for
other 3 months. (+)
By September, however, the Tuareg rebellion had split into three principal
factions only one of which, the Front for the Liberation of Tamoust (FLT),
agreed to renew the truce for other 3
months. (+)
Despite the truces, some splinter groups of rebels or bandits continued
throughout 1993 to attack
convoys and government outposts, raiding vehicles and taking food and
fuel. Although many of the attacks were attributable to banditry, others
were attributable to armed Tuareg factions associated with the rebellion.
The political goal of these attacks reportedly was to demonstrate the Government's
vulnerability and inability to protect civilian population. (+)
There were numerous reports that government forces used excessive violence
against both rebels and noncombatants. (+) |
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On February 1994, The Government, through French, Algerian and Burkina-Faso
intermediaries, has attempted to arrange talks with all the Tuareg factions.
(+)
It is also there that the CRA (Coordination of the Armed Resistance)
has published its first claim
platform. (*)
On June 1994, a second meeting has taken place in Paris. But this meeting
was a failure. An
appointment had been taken in Algeria for the continuation of negotiations.
(*)
At the end of September 1994, a technical meeting is organized in Ouagadougou
to study modes of
pursuit of negotiations and an establishment of a calendar of encounters.
Unexpectedly, an "agreement of peace" is signed between Niger and the Tuareg
resistance. (*)
In 1995, the situation moved like a pendulum between an expectation
and disappointment of peace.
On April 1995, an "agreement of peace" is signed again.
On June 1995, The government has amnestied acts committed by the rebellion.
On June 26 1995, A confrontation occurred between Organization of the
armed Resistance and Arab militiamen in the North of Niger. A tension is
perceptible between the native Arab community of the region and Tuareg
rebel that it accuses looting and exactions.
On July 21 1995, Six movements of the ex-rebellion of Tuareg have regrouped
within a new
Coordination of the Armed Resistance (CRA) and asserted that they didn't
feel any link by the process of peace in its current form.
On September 1995, the ex-rebellion of Tuareg warned the government
asserting that nothing has been made since the signature in April of an
agreement of peace. In one week, they threatened government with taking
arms again and breaking the agreement of peace. On September 12, finally
they resumed combats.
On October 25 1995, the ex-rebeillon of Tuareg accepted to continue
the application of treaty of
peace. But delegation of the Organization of the Armed Resistance (ORA)
did not include however
representatives of the Coordination of the Armed resistance (CRA).
Two new other fronts of Toubous and Arabs, born in the East of the country
but non signatories of the treaty, joint to the CRA.
On November 27 1995, ORA suspended its participation to the application
of the agreement of peace.
After the coup d'etat of January 27 1996, the government begins to
integrate the elements of
ex-rebellion in the constitution of government.
MALI - 1990-1996
On June 1990, following the multiplication of exactions of the army
against families returned from
Algeria and shut up near Kidal, the young Tuareg, fearing massacres
as to neighbor Niger, took arms and entered in resistance against the central
power. (*)
On August 1990, more than 600 civilians Tuareg were already killed.
(*)
On January 1991, after several months of conflicts, the Algeria arrived
to obtain from the two parts the signature of an agreement of peace at
Tamanrasset. But this agreement had no sequence. (*)
The most remarkable event for Tuareg community had happened at Léré
(in the Region of Timbuctu).
In the morning of 20 May 1991, on order of the Captain ordering the
military company parked at Léré, all the notable (traditional
Chiefs, Imams, counselors, etc...) were summoned and executed publicly
without any judgment neither any verification of their identity. After
that, the army has mounted guard at all points of water, shooting systematically
all that arrive at there, men and animals. Families of victims were retained
in hostages by the army during a year. (*)
On April 1992, Tuareg movements and the Malian government signed again,
always under the Algerian mediation, a new agreement: "the National Pact".
This pact anticipated a particular status for the three regions of the
North of Mali (Gao, Timbuctu and Kidal). Thus, concerned populations, Fulani,
Songhay, Maur, Tuareg..., had to benefit from a certain autonomy that would
allow them to adapt their development to their economic and cultural specificity.
The signature of this agreement did not put nevertheless the end at
exactions against Tuareg and Maur communities. Thus, the other executions
had taken place, notably at Gossi, on 14 May 1992, 12 Tuareg working for
an O.N.G. (the Assistance of the Norwegian Church) had been assassinated
by soldiers. (*)
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On May 17 1992, at Foïta (Mauritanian frontier), 48 breeders have
been killed close to a well with their animals. As other consequences,
these massacres have promoted the escape to the Mauritania and the Algeria
of tens of thousands of persons that have had to abandon houses, goods
and herds... All towns of the North have been emptied of their Tuareg and
Maur populations. |
Refugees returned to Mali, after the signature of the National Pact have
not delayed to retort, frighten by arbitrary confiscations of their goods
and herds. (*)
On July 12 1992, while MFUA (Movements and Unified Fronts of the Azawad)
had to meet with new president Alpha Oumar Konaré, Tuareg of aggressions
and looting have been obliged to flee in the embassy of Algeria at Bamako.
Exactions have never ceased and the reticence of Malian authorities
to apply the pact has finished by dividing the Tuareg resistance. The great
majority no longer believes to the political will of the central power
to rule this conflict by the negotiation.(+)
In June 1993, Tuareg and Maur bandits and rebels in the North increased
their attacks on civilian targets, leading to military, self-defense, and
vigilante group reprisals; an estimated 300 people, mostly civilians, were
killed. (+)
The success of "the National Pact" was compromised by serious
weaknesses linked to various factors (untenable dues, freezing of the ominous
action of various forces of inertia, confusion in financial interventions,
conflicts opened within movement and MFUA, socioeconomic turbulences, etc.).
It was in this context that was going to appear the Gandakoy "master
of the earth". The militias of Gandakoy would use the "exasperation"
of Songhay populations for attack violently to Tuareg and
Moor populations, in reaction against the actions of banditry that attributed
to some elements of MFUA.
A resurgence of Tuareg and Maur bandit/rebel attacks in Mali's northern
regions in June, July, and August initiated a cycle of attacks
and reprisals, leading to the deaths of as many as 300 people, mostly civilians.
In reprisal actions, elements of the security forces were responsible for
an undetermined number of these extra-judicial killings. According to credible
reports, armed groups of Tuareg and Maur and self-defense/vigilante groups,
organized by the black sedentary populations, also committed extra-judicial
killings. (*)
The fighting in the North between government troops and Tuareg rebels
generated approximately 100,000 Tuareg and Maur refugees, most of who fled
to Mauritania, Algeria and Burkina-Faso.(+)
On April 21 1994, in a reprisal attack against Tuareg and Maur in Menaka,
the military killed 4 people and wounded 12. A military inquiry resulted
only in the transfer of a number of military personnel to other camps,
but there were no charges, trials, or convictions.(+)
In June and July 1994, security forces and self-defense/vigilante groups
in the Timbuktu region killed as many as 50 Tuareg and Maur, including
the director of the Islamic/Arabic Study and Documentation Center located
in Timbuktu.(+)
On July 25 1994 rebels attacked the town of Bamba and killed approximately
40 civilians. Some reports placed the casualty figure over 100. (+)
The 1992 National Pact ended the official insurrection in the North,
but bandit attacks continued sporadically. The Government and four major
rebel groups still recognize the Pact, but do not
implement its provisions. (+)
On October 4 1994, a four-person military patrol shot and killed the
Swiss Cooperation Mission director and two Malian colleagues in the town
of Niafunke, allegedly because the mission was aiding Tuareg rebels. A
government mission of inquiry into the killings determined that the patrol's
actions were unwarranted and unjustified. By year's end, the Government
had not identified publicly the responsible parties, nor set in motion
judicial proceedings. (+)
On October 20 1994, a large group of rebels attacked the town of Ansongo
in the southeastern corner of Mali, killing approximately six persons,
including the head of the military detachment and several civilians.(+)
On October 22 1994, Tuareg and Maur attacked civilian and other targets
in the city of Gao,
killing approximately 14 persons and wounding 17. (+)
The Government condemned such acts by all parties but appeared to have
little control over some security elements in the North. Although the National
Pact calls for a Commission of Inquiry, the Government did nothing to create
one. (+)
This conflict has driven away several hundred of thousands of Tuareg
and Maur to escape from massacres and to flee in neighbor countries; 100
000 refugees to Mauritania, more of 100 000 to
Algeria and approximately 50 000 to the Burkina-Faso. To these figures
it is necessary to add tens of thousands of others that have never been
able to be made record because of not responding by to restrictive criteria
of the HCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). (*)
The fighting in the North between government troops and Tuareg rebels
has generated approximately 100 000 to 120 000 Tuareg and Maur refugees,
most of whom fled to Mauritania, Algeria, and Burkina Faso. Although Mali
has signed repatriation accords with all three nations under the auspices
of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, it has not implemented
them. The Government does not forcibly repatriate refugees. (+)
With the improved security situation in the three northern regions,
the flow of Malian refugees declined, and the Government, together with
its neighbors and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
planned to repatriate Malian refugees in those countries. (*) Although
the actions of banditry and reaction of Gandakoy still went on through
whole the year of 1995, it reduced with every month.
On July 13 1995, An international meeting for the development of the
North of Mali has been held at Timbuctu.
The latter half of 1995, the refugees in Mauritania and Algeria have
started to return to Mali, even though there was
not enough preparation for them.
(+) ; extract
of "Human Rights Reports" (Mali 1993, Mali 1994, Niger 1993 & Niger
1994)
(*) ; extract
of articles of "Issalan n Temoust" (No.0, No.1, & No.2)
Profiles
The Ahaggaren Tuareg of Algeria
(© Copyright 1997 Bethany World Prayer Center)
 |
The 30,000 Tuaregs of Algeria are part of a larger group of Berber-speaking
Tuaregs. They are nomads who raise cattle and live in an area that stretches
across North Africa. This territory extends from Western Sahara to the
northern portion of Western Sudan.
Although the origin and early history of the Tuaregs are cloudy, these
tribal nomads appear to have traveled down from North Africa in a series
of migrations as early as the 7th century. By the end of the 14th century,
Tuareg tribes had established themselves as far south as the Nigerian border.
The chief characteristics of the Tuaregs include the unity of their
language, their alphabet (which uses tifinagh characters), their complex
social organization, and their class structure. |
In direct contrast to Arab custom, the Tuareg men, rather than women, wear
veils. However, many men often leave their faces uncovered in family camps
or while traveling.
What are their lives like?
The Tuaregs of Algeria primarily live in small nomadic groups. Their
camps consist of five or six portable tents arranged in a tight circle.
Each tent is made of 30 or 40 tanned skins that have been dyed red and
sewn together. The skins are supported on a framework of wooden poles and
pegged into the ground.
Each tribe is governed by a chief and an assembly of adult males. The
tribes are grouped into three confederations, each with its own sheik and
council of rulers. These three confederations are under the leadership
of one paramount chief, called an amenokal, and a council of nobles. Succession
to headship is matrilineal (passed down through the lineage of the women).
Tuareg society also has an elaborate structure. The main division is
between the noble class and the various serf classes. In most Tuareg groups,
there are also whole tribes of ineslemen or marabouts. These are "holy
people" who, like other tribes, are led by their own chiefs. Among some
of the Berbers, such tribes are considered to be different from ordinary
men. They are believed to possess the powers of protection and healing,
even after death.
The lowest class does both the manual and domestic labor. This class
is made up of ethnically mixed peoples who live in a cooperative relationship
with their masters, the Tuareg. Many were originally slaves, either taken
during warfare or bought at Indonesian slave markets. Three slave groups
in the lower class are the iklan, the inaden, and the harratin. The iklan
take care of herding, cooking, and other domestic chores. The inaden work
as artisans and blacksmiths for the Tuaregs. The harratin are Negroid tenant
farmers who work as share-croppers. Sadly, the Tuaregs have very little
respect for these groups.
The Tuaregs of Algeria are primarily shepherds. Each tribe holds collective
property rights on special grazing grounds. They also do a small amount
of farming on this land, using irrigation and hand-held hoes. Their main
crop is wheat, but they also grow some barley and grain, dates, figs, apricots,
grapes, and a number of vegetables. Although they raise camels, donkeys,
sheep, and goats, they only eat meat at feasts. Milk, both fresh and sour,
is a staple food, and is used to make butter and cheese.
Veils worn by the Tuareg men are called tidjelmoust. The most preferred
veils are dyed indigo. To show respect, the men always cover their mouths,
noses, and foreheads in the presence of foreigners and their in-laws.
What are their beliefs?
Though the Tuaregs are 100% Sunni Muslims, they have a reputation among
other Muslims for being lukewarm in their faith. They practice a passive
form of Islam, infused with local superstitions and magic. Protective charms
or amulets are commonly worn, and belief in spirits is widespread. There
are several Marabouts (those of the "holy class") living among them, some
of whom run Islamic schools.
Statistics
THE PEOPLE
People name: Ahaggaren Tuareg
Country: Algeria
Their language: Tahaggart
Population:
(1990) 27,000
(1995) 30,200
(2000) 33,700
Largest religion:
Muslims 100%
Christians: 0%
|
THEIR COUNTRY
Country: Algeria
Population:
(1990) 24,935,400
(1995) 27,939,000
(2000) 31,158,400
Major peoples in size order:
Algerian Arab 62.2%
Hamyan Bedouin 6.9%
Greater Kabyle 6.1%
Tajakant Bedouin 4.1%
Major religions:
Muslims 99.2%
Christians 0.6%
Non religious 0.1% |
The Tamasheq of Mali
 |
The Tamasheq are a subgroup of the Tuareg peoples, who live in an area
that stretches from the Sahara to Sudan. The 284,000 Tamasheq of Mali live
in or near the city of Timbuktu. While the origin of the Tuareg is unclear,
these nomads appear to have traveled down from North Africa in a series
of migrations as early as the seventh century. By the end of the 1300's,
Tuareg tribes had established themselves as far south as the Nigerian border.
The Tuareg founded the city of Timbuktu in the eleventh century. By
the 1300's, it had become one of Mali's major commercial and cultural centers.
Archeologists have studied the remains of large populations that |
formerly lived comfortably all over the ancient Sahara region. They believe
it was once filled with low grass valleys, trees, shrubs, rivers, lakes,
and swamps. Today, however, that is not the case. Although Timbuktu has
been a highly romanticized city, it actually lies in one of the world's
most desolate regions.
What are their lives like?
The entire Sahara region is very hot in the summer, reaching temperatures
of 130° F. Violent winds are also very common and add to the discomfort
of the climate. Sandstorms do much more damage than rain and are much more
feared. Traveling is extremely hard under such conditions and most people
spend the day in the shade of rocks and trees, sleeping and drinking water.
Rain in the Sahara is irregular, and in some places it has not rained in
six years.
The Tamasheq, like other Tuareg, have a highly complex social structure.
The main division is between the Ihaggaren (upper class nobility) and the
Imrad (lower class servants). In the past, each of the noble tribes and
their servants formed a political unit under a chief. The chief's authority
was symbolized by a drum. The "drum chief" held supreme political and judicial
authority in the group, regulating relations between the nobles and the
servants.
Among the Tamasheq, there are also whole tribes of Ineslemen or Marabouts.
These are "holy people" who, like other tribes, are led by their own chiefs.
All of the manual labor is performed by the lowest class, known as the
Iklan. Many Iklan were originally slaves, either taken during warfare or
bought at Indonesian slave markets. The Iklan take care of herding, cooking,
and other domestic chores.
In direct contrast to Arab custom, the Tamasheq men wear veils called
tidjelmousts; the women do not wear veils. The tidjelmousts are the most
distinctive article of clothing worn by the men. The Tamasheq see it as
shockingly indecent for a man's mouth to be seen by anyone to whom he owes
formal respect. Therefore, he will always cover his face when in the presence
of someone of higher social standing.
Catastrophic droughts in 1972 and 1982-1985 drove thousands of Tuareg
from Mali and Niger into Algeria and Libya. Some of the unemployed Tuareg
men left for Libya, where they received military training and weapons.
In the early 1990's, they returned to their homes, demanding their independence.
Since that time, there has been continuous guerrilla warfare in some regions
of Mali and Niger. Some Tuareg have been forced into refugee camps in neighboring
countries.
In 1987, Niger and Mali invited the Tuareg to return home. However,
once they arrived, the governments failed to honor prior promises and kept
them in detention camps. In 1990, there was a general Tuareg revolt; but
it was brutally suppressed. When the revolt spread to Timbuktu, thousands
were killed and hundreds of thousands fled to Algeria and Mauritania.
What are their beliefs?
The Tamasheq, like other Tuareg, are virtually all Sunni Muslim. However,
they have a reputation among other Muslims for being lukewarm in their
faith. They practice a passive form of Islam, infused with local superstitions
and magic. Most do not even celebrate the most important Muslim fast of
Ramadan.
Statistics
THE PEOPLE
People name: Tamasheq
Country: Mali
Their language: Tanslemt
Population:
(1990) 242,200
(1995) 283,900
(2000) 330,300
Largest religion:
Muslim (Sunni) 99.9%
Christians: <1%
|
THEIR COUNTRY
Country: Mali
Population:
(1990) 9,211,700
(1995) 10,795,300
(2000) 12,599,300
Major peoples in size order:
Bambara 31.4%
Fula Macina 9.6%
Soninke 7.4%
Sanghai 6.3%
Major religions:
Muslim 85.3%
Ethnic religionist 12%
Christian 2.7% |
The Air Tuareg of Niger
 |
The Air Tuareg belong to a larger group of nomadic Tuareg who
live in an area that stretches from the Sahara to Sudan. The 170,000 Air
Tuareg live in northwestern Niger, primarily in the Air region.
Although the origin and early history of the Tuareg are cloudy, these
tribal nomads appear to have traveled down from North Africa in a series
of migrations as early as the seventh century. By the end of the 1300's,
Tuareg tribes had established themselves as far south as the Nigerian border.
As they advanced, they came into contact with the Songhai and the Hausa. |
By the 1400's, Air had become an important center in the caravan trade.
It was often fought over and conquered by various local rulers. In 1515,
the Air Tuareg were conquered by the Songhai, and a century of prosperity
followed. However, shortly before 1700, the Air region was again conquered—this
time by the Hausa.
What are their lives like?
The Air Tuareg are primarily nomadic shepherds, who move their livestock
from one grazing ground to another with the changing of seasons. Many are
also farmers. Their staple crops are grain, dates, and sorghum. They also
grow a little wheat and some vegetables. Milk products are an important
part of their diet.
Although most of the Air Tuareg live in nomadic camps, there are a
number of permanent villages as well. The village houses are usually rectangular
in shape and are built with flat roofs and stone walls. The nomads live
in portable, rectangular tents with walls made of tanned hides.
The Tuareg have a highly complex social structure. The main division
is between the Ihaggaren (upper class nobility) and the Imrad (lower class
servants). There are also whole tribes of Marabouts, or "holy people,"
who are led by their own chiefs. In the past, each of the noble tribes
and their servants formed a political unit under a chief whose authority
was symbolized by a drum. The "drum chief" held supreme political and judicial
authority in the group.
Those in the lowest class do the manual and domestic labor. This class
is made up of ethnically mixed peoples who live in a cooperative relationship
with their masters. Many were originally slaves, either taken during war
or bought at Indonesian slave markets. There are three slave groups in
the lower class: the iklan, the inaden, and the harratin. The iklan take
care of herding, cooking, and other domestic chores. The inaden work as
artisans and blacksmiths. The harratin are Negroid tenant farmers who work
as share-croppers.
Both the Tuareg and the Negro classes speak the Tuareg language, which
forms part of the Berber language group. The Tuareg men are usually bi-
or trilingual.
In direct contrast to Arab custom, the Tuareg men wear veils called
tidjelmousts; the women do not wear veils. To show respect, the men always
cover their mouths, noses, and foreheads while in the presence of foreigners
or their in-laws. The most preferred veils are dyed indigo.
Marriage always requires the payment of a bride price, which consists
of camels, money, or other livestock. A household is made up of the nuclear
family and their house slaves. Couples generally live near the groom's
parents.
What are their beliefs?
Though the Tuareg are virtually all Sunni Muslim, they have a reputation
among other Muslims for being lukewarm in their faith. They practice a
passive form of Islam, infused with superstitions and magic. Most do not
even celebrate the most important Muslim fast of Ramadan.
It is very common for the Tuareg to wear protective charms. Many also
believe in jinnis, which are—according to Muslim legend—spirits capable
of assuming human or animal form and exercising supernatural influence
over people.
Statistics
THE PEOPLE
People name: Air Tuareg
Country: Niger
Their language: Tayrt (Tamasheq)
Population:
(1990) 143,200
(1995) 169,500
(2000) 200,200
Largest religion:
Muslim (Sunni) 99.9%
Christians: <1%
|
THEIR COUNTRY
Country: Niger
Population:
(1990) 7,731,400
(1995) 9,151,400
(2000) 10,805,000
Major peoples in size order:
Zerma 23.7%
Tazarawa 14.9%
Sokoto Fulani 11%
North Hausa 6.6%
Adamawa Hausa 6%
Major religions:
Muslim 91.2%
Ethnic religionist 8.5%
Christian 0.3%
Number of denominations: 14 |
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